واکاوی ماهیت نمایندگی ظاهری در فقه امامیه و حقوق ایران

‌ ∴ Introduction ∴ ‌
The institution of "apparent authority" has become crucial in contemporary law, particularly in commercial contexts where transaction speed and security are essential. In authority relationships, where an agent acts on behalf of a principal, apparent authority allows third parties to assume the agent's authority based on appearances, even if the agent lacks explicit authorization. This principle, a key element of common law, aims to protect third parties who rely on the perceived legitimacy of an authority relationship to avoid economic harm.
     Traditionally, the validity of contracts and their obligations depend on the intent and agreement of the contracting parties. However, apparent authority shifts this paradigm, requiring the principal to honor contracts made by an unauthorized agent, provided the third party's reliance on the agent's authority was reasonable. This ability to bind a principal—despite their lack of intent to confer authority—challenges foundational concepts in contract and authority law, especially in legal systems that prioritize contractual intent.
     In Iranian law, informed by Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh), apparent authority is not formally recognized. However, parallels exist in Shi’a legal thought, particularly within doctrines like dormant / sleeping partnership [Mudaraba] and rulings on sales, where implied authority concepts are occasionally acknowledged. This research explores the relevance and potential integration of apparent authority into Iranian law, assessing its compatibility with Shi’a jurisprudence and contemporary commerce.

‌ ∴ Research Question ∴ ‌
This study addresses the primary question: To what extent can the doctrine of apparent authority, developed in common law jurisdictions, be aligned with or integrated into Iranian law and Islamic jurisprudence? This question branches into several sub-questions:
     How does the concept of apparent authority differ in its treatment within common law and Islamic jurisprudence?
     What are the fundamental principles and criteria underlying the recognition of apparent authority in common law systems?
     Can apparent authority be reconciled with the doctrinal positions of Iranian law and Islamic jurisprudence, particularly given the emphasis on contractual intent?

‌ ∴ Research Hypothesis ∴ ‌
This research operates on the hypothesis that, although apparent authority does not have an established place in Islamic jurisprudence or Iranian legal doctrine, it may be a necessary adaptation for modern Iranian commerce. Since Islamic law emphasizes mutual intent in contract formation, apparent authority challenges these principles by imposing liability on principals based on third-party reliance rather than the principal's expressed intent. The hypothesis suggests that careful doctrinal analysis could reveal a conceptual basis for apparent authority within Iranian law, aligning relevant legal doctrines and precedents with the demands of modern commerce.

‌ ∴ Methodology & Framework, if Applicable ∴ ‌
This research adopts a doctrinal methodology, characterized by in-depth analysis of statutory texts, legal doctrines, and jurisprudential writings, with a comparative focus on common law precedents. The research is structured into several stages: Literature Review, Jurisprudential Analysis, Comparative Analysis, and Doctrinal Synthesis and Interpretation.

‌ ∴ Results & Discussion ∴ ‌
The investigation into the nature and applicability of apparent authority within Iranian law and Islamic jurisprudence reveals significant insights. Primarily, apparent authority aligns with certain principles in Islamic jurisprudence, particularly the principle of governance [Hokumat], which supports its conceptualization as a “deemed contract.” Through governance, apparent authority is recognized as a legally constructed relationship, despite the absence of an actual mutual authority agreement between principal and agent. This principle provides a basis for interpreting apparent authority as functionally equivalent to real authority, making it plausible for Iranian law to adopt apparent authority principles while remaining consistent with Islamic jurisprudential values.
     Governance operates by allowing one rule (the governing rule) to dominate or redefine another (the governed rule), particularly where legal outcomes align with broader societal or legal goals. This research identifies four critical aspects of governance relevant to apparent authority:
     The primacy of the governing rule (apparent authority) over the governed rule (the conventional authority structure).
     The shared legislative source of both rules, harmonizing apparent authority with foundational Islamic legal principles.
     The clear delineation of the governing rule to prevent interpretive ambiguity in its application to real and deemed contracts.
     The governing rule’s supervision over the governed rule, establishing apparent authority as a structured exception in specific legal contexts.
     These dimensions underscore the alignment of apparent authority with the jurisprudential framework. In commercial law, this alignment is crucial, as it allows third-party reliance on authority relationships based on appearance rather than explicit authority, fulfilling the objectives of transactional security and efficiency.
     Moreover, apparent authority operates as a legal presumption, allowing for the establishment of a contract contrary to the factual intentions of the principal and agent, thereby satisfying necessary legal outcomes. This presumption posits that although the authority relationship may not exist in reality, it is "deemed" to exist to apply legal effects and protect third-party interests. This legal presumption thus supports transactional certainty, bridging gaps between the real and apparent intentions of authority participants.
     Further examination reveals key substantive elements that characterize apparent authority within the framework of a deemed contract. From a legal presumption perspective, these elements include:
     Falsity: The assumed relationship may not reflect the true will of the principal or agent.
     Conclusiveness: The assumption is binding and provides finality for third-party transactions.
     Irreversibility: The effects of apparent authority are legally non-negotiable.
     Legality: The presumption holds legal force despite the lack of an actual authority agreement.
     From the deemed contract perspective, apparent authority includes additional components:
     Obligatory and coercive effects: Legal effects are imposed without negotiation, akin to real authority.
     Absence of a true authority relationship: A real authority relationship does not exist between the parties and the deemed effects do not require such a basis.
     Expansion of authority concepts: The nature of real authority is extended to the apparent relationship.
     Together, these elements reveal that apparent authority is structured to serve as a deemed contract within Iranian law and Islamic jurisprudence, fulfilling both legal objectives and practical needs in commercial contexts. Consequently, Iranian law may benefit from recognizing apparent authority to balance commercial reliability with adherence to Islamic principles.

‌ ∴ Conclusion ∴ ‌
This research concludes that apparent authority operates as a specific type of deemed contract within Iranian law, grounded in the principle of governance. In this sense, apparent authority is not an isolated construct but a calculated legal presumption, designed to impose the effects of real authority onto a relationship that is only assumed to be genuine. This approach maintains the flexibility necessary for commercial law while adhering to Islamic jurisprudential values.
     Through the governance principle, Iranian law can adapt the structure of apparent authority to accommodate modern commercial demands by permitting third-party reliance on authority appearances in the absence of explicit authority, thus safeguarding transactional security and reliability. By integrating apparent authority within the doctrine of deemed contracts, Iranian law can leverage underlying Islamic jurisprudence concepts to justify apparent authority as a legitimate and valuable construct for modern transactions.
     The findings affirm that the deemed contract, grounded in governance, offers a feasible basis for apparent authority. This conclusion suggests a path for Iranian law to embrace apparent authority within commercial legal contexts, enhancing protection for third parties while preserving doctrinal coherence. In essence, apparent authority, as a form of deemed contract, aligns with Iranian legal principles and offers substantial utility in promoting trust and efficiency in commercial interactions. This integration would establish a robust framework for managing authority-based transactions and reinforce confidence in the broader legal system.