A Jurisprudential and Legal Inquiry into the Foundations and Limits of the Liability of Manufacturers of Internet of Things Devices

‌ ∴ Introduction ∴ ‌
The rapid expansion of Internet of Things (IoT) devices has seamlessly integrated technology into both industrial operations and private life, significantly impacting security, privacy, and the quality of life for users and consumers. However, this growth brings forth critical issues regarding liability when these devices malfunction or cause harm. Manufacturers, as the primary creators and suppliers, hold a unique status in ensuring the proper functioning of these products. In contexts like Iran, where suitable legislative frameworks are lacking, it becomes imperative to explore the foundational jurisprudential and legal principles that could guide the establishment of manufacturer liability within the Islamic legal system. 

‌ ∴ Research Question ∴ ‌
What are the fundamental principles and limitations of liability for IoT device manufacturers within the Islamic legal system, and how can these principles inform the development of appropriate legislative frameworks in Iran to address the harms caused to consumers by IoT device malfunctions? 

‌ ∴ Research Hypothesis ∴ ‌
Based on the principle of "action and acceptance of consequences" [Igh'dam] in Islamic law, the study hypothesizes that a moderated approach to manufacturer liability is necessary. This approach should recognize the technical complexities of IoT devices and assign appropriate responsibility to manufacturers for damages resulting from device malfunctions, while also considering the roles of consumers, governmental bodies, and quality assurance organizations in mitigating risks and addressing harms. 

‌ ∴ Methodology & Framework, if Applicable ∴ ‌
This research employs a doctrinal legal methodology, utilizing comprehensive library-based resources to analyze and propose theories related to manufacturer liability in the IoT sector.

‌ ∴ Results & Discussion ∴ ‌
The research demonstrates that relying solely on the principle of destruction "It’laf" (causing loss) in Islamic jurisprudence is insufficient to establish the liability of IoT device manufacturers. This is primarily because there is often no direct causal link between the manufacturer's actions and the damage incurred by the consumer. The complexity of IoT devices and the multifaceted nature of potential harms necessitate a more robust legal foundation. Therefore, the study explores a plurality of legal theories—including risk, negligence, product safety assurance, and strict liability—that collectively affirm the civil liability of manufacturers.
     The application of these theories acknowledges that IoT devices introduce unique challenges due to their technical intricacies and the rapid pace of technological advancement. For instance, the theory of negligence highlights the manufacturer's duty to exercise reasonable care in the design and production of devices. However, given the evolving nature of IoT technology, what constitutes "reasonable care" may change over time, requiring continuous adaptation of legal standards.
     Moreover, the concept of strict liability is particularly pertinent, as it holds manufacturers accountable for damages caused by defective products regardless of fault or negligence. This is crucial in situations where the consumer cannot easily identify or prove the manufacturer's fault due to the device's complexity. However, the study suggests that an absolute application of strict liability may be unjust, given the shared responsibilities among various stakeholders.
     The discussion also emphasizes the importance of flexibility in jurisprudential and legal theories to address new and unforeseen issues arising from IoT technologies. A rigid legal framework may fail to account for novel types of harm or the emergence of new actors in the IoT ecosystem. Therefore, a pluralistic and adaptable legal approach is necessary to ensure comprehensive consumer protection while also promoting innovation.
     Furthermore, the research acknowledges that manufacturers are not the sole bearers of responsibility. Consumers, under the principle of "action and gain" [Qa‘idat al-Ghanam] in Islamic law, accept certain risks when using IoT devices and thus share in the responsibility for any resultant harm. This acceptance is based on the understanding that engaging with advanced technologies inherently involves some level of risk.
     Governmental bodies and quality assurance organizations also play a critical role. Their responsibility lies in certifying products and ensuring they meet safety standards. Failure to detect defects can render them liable for damages, which introduces an additional layer of accountability and encourages rigorous regulatory oversight.
     The study highlights the necessity of investment in IoT technologies due to their significant societal benefits, such as improvements in healthcare, resource management, and transportation. To maximize these benefits, there must be concerted efforts from both governmental and private sectors to provide financial support and incentives for research and development. This investment not only accelerates technological advancement but also fosters consumer trust and widespread adoption of IoT devices.
     Lastly, the research points out the global deficiency in comprehensive legislative frameworks that address the legal aspects of new technologies. This gap underscores the need for ongoing scholarly engagement in Islamic jurisprudence and legal studies to develop updated laws that can effectively manage the complexities introduced by IoT devices. 

‌ ∴ Conclusion ∴ ‌
In conclusion, establishing the liability of IoT device manufacturers within the Islamic legal system requires a multifaceted approach that goes beyond the traditional principle of "It’laf." The study finds that incorporating various legal theories such as risk, negligence, product safety assurance, and strict liability creates a more robust and adaptable framework. This pluralistic legal foundation is essential to address the continuous emergence of new challenges posed by the advancement of IoT technologies.
     Manufacturers hold significant responsibilities, including ensuring device security, protecting consumer privacy, and accepting liability for defects. However, the complex nature of IoT devices means that consumers and governmental bodies also share in the responsibility for mitigating risks and addressing harms. Consumers, by choosing to use these devices, accept certain inherent risks, while regulatory bodies must enforce safety standards and certify product quality.
     The research emphasizes the critical role of investment and support in the development of IoT technologies. Such support enhances the quality of life and drives sustainable advancements, benefiting society at large. Encouraging innovation through financial incentives and infrastructural development is imperative for the continued growth and positive impact of IoT devices.