Journal of Islamic Law Research

Journal of Islamic Law Research

Convicts' Acquiescence to Judgments: The Necessity of Restricting Prosecutorial Appeals in the Criminal Procedure of Iran

Type : Research Article

Authors
1 PhD Student in Criminal Law and Criminology, Faculty of Judicial Law, University of Judicial Sciences and Administrative Services, Tehran. Iran.
2 Professor, Department of Criminal Law and Criminology, Faculty of Judicial Law, University of Judicial Sciences and Administrative Services, Tehran. Iran.
Abstract
 ‌Context & Objective: Acquiescence to judgment (submitting to a trial court's verdict and waiving the right to appeal in exchange for a mandatory sentence reduction) is a prevalent leniency mechanism in the Iranian criminal justice system. According to Article 442 of the Iranian Criminal Procedure Code, convicts who waive or withdraw their appeal against taʿzīr (a punishment determined at the discretion of the Islamic judge and lesser than the fixed ḥadd penalty) sentences before the judgment becomes final are entitled to mitigation, provided neither the prosecutor nor the private complainant appeals the decision. Despite the apparent simplicity of this statutory provision, its implementation reveals hidden legal complexities, as evidenced by the issuance of four precedent-setting judgments by the Supreme Court of Iran. A fundamental procedural challenge within this framework is the ambiguous role and operational conduct of the public prosecutor. Due to statutory brevity and doctrinal silence on this specific issue, prosecutorial intervention often depends on the personal preferences of judicial authorities rather than objective legal criteria. The primary purpose of this research is to define the logical boundaries of the prosecutor's right to appeal in such scenarios. Consequently, the main research question asks what the legitimate approach of the public prosecutor should be when confronting criminal convicts who submit to their initial judgments.
 ‌Method & Approach: This research employs an applied, doctrinal methodology alongside a descriptive-analytical approach to investigate the prosecutor's role in the appellate process. The study systematically interprets relevant provisions of the Iranian Criminal Procedure Code and evaluates various legal arguments, scholarly doctrines, and opposing viewpoints regarding the necessity and extent of prosecutorial appeals.
 ‌Findings: The investigation reveals three primary findings regarding the restriction of prosecutorial appeals. First, the pursuit of offenders through prosecutorial appeals against initial convictions must be measured, proportionate, and aligned with the principle of prosecutorial discretion rather than mandatory prosecution. When defendants submit to their initial convictions, the prosecutor's right to appeal should be inherently limited to serve broader strategic objectives, including the reduction of procedural stages, adherence to the principle of reasonable time in criminal proceedings, victim protection through the swift restoration of damages, the facilitation of convict rehabilitation, and the reduction of the penal population in prisons. Second, a protective, differential approach governs the leniency mechanism in the context of child and juvenile delinquency. The prosecutor is generally prohibited from appealing juvenile court judgments under the pretext of disproportionate sentencing, thereby insulating the juvenile's acquiescence to judgment from prosecutorial disruption. Third, the current legal framework necessitates substantial legislative revision concerning specific offenses. The findings emphasize that the legislature must establish an absolute prohibition on prosecutorial intervention regarding convicts' submission to judgments in forgivable crimes, taʿzīr crimes against chastity—which are subject to the Islamic criminal policy of concealment and non-investigation—and degree-seven taʿzīr offenses, where judicial leniency is inherently prioritized.
 ‌Conclusion: The legal implications of this study confirm that the overarching framework for prosecutorial appeals, in circumstances where the defendant complies with the initial trial court conviction, must be rigidly founded upon the principle of minimal intervention. While the right to a second hearing and the avoidance of judicial errors remain fundamental to fair trial standards, unchecked prosecutorial appeals undermine the efficiency and rehabilitative potential of the acquiescence mechanism. A minimalist prosecutorial approach acts as an essential procedural balance, transforming the public prosecutor from an unrestrained authority into a judicial manager who effectively harmonizes public interest with individual rights and liberties. To legally codify this minimal intervention and resolve existing judicial inconsistencies, the legislature must intervene directly. The study concludes by proposing a specific statutory amendment to Article 442 of the Criminal Procedure Code. This proposed addendum would explicitly nullify the prosecutor's right to appeal when a convict submits to the verdict in forgivable crimes, chastity offenses, degree-seven taʿzīr crimes, and all sentences issued by juvenile courts, thereby guaranteeing the procedural integrity and intended leniency of the acquiescence mechanism.
Keywords
Subjects

  1. Akhoundi, Mahmoud (1390 SH/2011). Āyīn-e dādrasī-ye keyfarī [Criminal Procedure] (Vol. 4). Tehran: Printing and Publishing Organization [in Persian].
  2. Amadeh, Gholamhossein (1397 SH/2018). Dādrasī-ye efterāqī dar jarāʾem-e monāfī-ye ʿeffat dar ʿolūm-e jenāyī-ye ḥoqūqī [Differential Procedure in Crimes Against Public Decency in Legal Criminal Sciences] (Ali Hossein Najafi Abrandabadi, Superv.) (Book 3). Tehran: Mizan [in Persian].
  3. Ancel, Marc (1391 SH/2012). Defāʿ-e ejtemāʿī (Mohammad Ashouri & Ali Hossein Najafi Abrandabadi, Trans.) [Social Defence]. Tehran: Ganj-e Danesh [in Persian].
  4. Ashouri, Mohammad (1388 SH/2009). Āyīn-e dādrasī-ye keyfarī [Criminal Procedure] (Vol. 1). Tehran: SAMT [in Persian].
  5. Ashouri, Mohammad, Ardebili, Mohammad Ali, Mahdavi Sabet, Mohammad Ali, & Kounani, Salman (1397 SH/2018). Šenāḵt va taʿrīfī mobtanī bar bīneš-e jorm-šenāsāneh az eṣlāḥ va darmān-e maḥkūmān-e zendānī [A Criminologically Informed Understanding and Definition of Rehabilitation and Treatment of Imprisoned Convicts]. Faslnameh-ye Pazhoheshhay-e Hoquqi-ye Qazayi [Judicial Legal Research Quarterly], No. 2, pp. 7–52 [in Persian].
  6. Baqaee, Mohammad, Malmir, Mahmoud, & Heidari, Masoud (1404 SH/2025). Darmān va bāzparvarī dar neẓām-e ḥoqūqī-ye Īrān az manẓar-e sīyāsat-e jenāyī [Treatment and Rehabilitation in the Iranian Legal System from the Perspective of Criminal Policy]. Faslnameh-ye Feqh-e Jaza-ye Tatbiqi [Comparative Criminal Jurisprudence Quarterly], Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 167–180 [in Persian].
  7. Bayat, Mohsen, & Moazenzadegan, Hassanali (1399 SH/2020). Naqż-e ḥoqūq-e defāʿī-ye mottaham dar feqd-e tajdīdnaẓar-ḵᵛāhī; pazhūhešī az ārāʾ-ye dādgāh-e keyfarī-ye yek [Violation of the Accused's Defense Rights in the Absence of Appeal: A Study of the Judgments of Criminal Court One]. Faslnameh-ye Didgahhay-e Hoquq-e Qazayi [Judicial Law Views Quarterly], Vol. 25, No. 89, pp. 63–81 [in Persian].
  8. Beccaria, Cesare (1389 SH/2010). Resāleh-ye jarāʾem va mojāzāt-hā (Mohammad Ali Ardebili, Trans.) [On Crimes and Punishments]. Tehran: Mizan [in Persian].
  9. Bedashti, Rouhollah, Mir Ebrahimi, Sayyid Ali, Aghaei, Jan Ahmad, & Ghorbani, Mohammad Ali (1400 SH/2021). Tartībāt va āṯār-e ḥākem bar tajdīdnaẓar-e keyfarī dar ḥoqūq-e Īrān [Arrangements and Effects Governing Criminal Appeal in Iranian Law]. Faslnameh-ye Feqh-e Jaza-ye Tatbiqi [Comparative Criminal Jurisprudence Quarterly], Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 105–117 [in Persian].
  10. Haji Dehabadi, Mohammad Ali (1388 SH/2009). Eṣlāḥ-e mojremān dar sīyāsat-e jenāyī-ye taqnīnī-ye Īrān [Rehabilitation of Offenders in Iran's Legislative Criminal Policy]. Faslnameh-ye Motale'at-e Hoquq-e Khososi [Private Law Studies Quarterly], Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 83–104 [in Persian].
  11. Hashemi Bajgani, Sayyid Jafar, & Mojahed, Afshin (1400 SH/2021). Āṯār va jehāt-e tajdīdnaẓar-ḵᵛāhī (pazhūheš-ḵᵛāhī) az manẓar-e feqh-e Emāmīyeh, ḥoqūq-e Īrān va Farānseh [Effects and Grounds of Appeal from the Perspective of Imami Jurisprudence, Iranian, and French Law]. Faslnameh-ye Tamaddon-e Hoquqi [Legal Civilization Quarterly], Vol. 4, No. 84, pp. 147–163 [in Persian].
  12. Heidari, Elham (1400 SH/2021). Moʾallafeh-hā-ye moʾaṯṯer dar arzyābī-ye aṣl-e mohlat-e maʿqūl dar dādrasī-ye keyfarī (bā negāh bar ravīyeh-ye qażāʾī-ye dīvān-e owrūpāyī-ye ḥoqūq-e bašar) [Effective Components in Evaluating the Principle of Reasonable Time in Criminal Proceedings (With a Look at the Jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights)]. Nashriyeh-ye Pazhohesh-e Tatbiqi-ye Hoquq-e Eslam va Gharb [Comparative Research Journal of Islamic and Western Law], Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 149–182 [in Persian].
  13. Heidari, Sirous, Foroughi, Fazlollah, & Aerab Sheybani, Mohammad Reza (1398 SH/2019). Mabānī va šarāyeṭ-e ḥojjīyat-e ārāʾ-ye keyfarī dar daʿāvī-ye madanī [Foundations and Conditions of the Authority of Criminal Judgments in Civil Lawsuits]. Nashriyeh-ye Danesh-e Hoquq-e Madani [Civil Law Knowledge Journal], Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 23–42 [in Persian].
  14. Jafarzadeh, Jafar, Jafari Harandi, Mohammad, & Farahzadi, Rahmat (1397 SH/2018). Mabānī-ye feqhī-ye tajdīdnaẓar-ḵᵛāhī-ye raʾy-e qożāt [Jurisprudential Foundations of Appealing Judges' Verdicts]. Faslnameh-ye Pazhoheshhay-e Feqh va Hoquq-e Eslami [Islamic Jurisprudence and Law Research Quarterly], Vol. 14, No. 53, pp. 55–66 [in Persian].
  15. Jamadi, Ali (1385 SH/2006). Naqš-e dādgāh-e tajdīdnaẓar-e ostān dar taʿdīl-e mojāzāt-hā bā taʾkīd bar kāheš-e mojāzāt-e ḥabs [The Role of the Provincial Court of Appeal in Mitigating Punishments with Emphasis on Reducing Prison Sentences]. Majalleh-ye Hoquqi-ye Dadgostari [Justice Legal Journal], Vol. 70, No. 55, pp. 135–154 [in Persian].
  16. Katouzian, Nasser (1376 SH/1997). Moʿammā-ye tajdīdnaẓar dar aḥkām va taʿāroż-e nīrūhā-ye ejtemāʿī [The Enigma of Reviewing Judgments and Conflict of Social Forces]. Majalleh-ye Daneshkadeh-ye Hoquq va Olum-e Siyasi-ye Tehran [Journal of Faculty of Law and Political Science of Tehran], Vol. 38, pp. 5–18 [in Persian].
  17. Khaleghi, Ali (1393 SH/2014). Nokteh-hā dar qānūn-e āyīn-e dādrasī-ye keyfarī [Points in the Criminal Procedure Code]. Tehran: Shahr-e Danesh [in Persian].
  18. Khazani, Manouchehr (1377 SH/1998). Farāyand-e keyfarī (majmūʿeh-ye maqālāt) [Criminal Process (Collection of Articles)]. Tehran: Ganj-e Danesh [in Persian].
  19. Koushki, Gholamhossein (1387 SH/2008). Barresī-ye eḵtīyārāt va vaẓāyef-e dādestān dar āyīn-e dādrasī-ye keyfarī-ye Īrān va Farānseh [Examining the Powers and Duties of the Prosecutor in the Criminal Procedure of Iran and France] (Doctoral dissertation). Tehran: Shahid Beheshti University [in Persian].
  20. Larguier, Jean (1378 SH/1999). Āyīn-e dādrasī-ye keyfarī (Farānseh) (Hasan Kashefi Esmeilzadeh, Trans.) [Criminal Procedure (France)]. Tehran: Ganj-e Danesh [in Persian].
  21. Mahmoudi Janki, Firouz (1400 SH/2021). Ḥaqq-e tajdīdnaẓar-ḵᵛāhī-ye dādestān dar jarāʾem-e qābel-e goẕašt [The Prosecutor's Right of Appeal in Forgivable Crimes]. Do-faslnameh-ye Rah-e Vekalat [Path of Advocacy Biannual Journal], Vol. 13, No. 26, pp. 152–159 [in Persian].
  22. Mahmoudi, Morteza, Babaei, Mohammad Ali, & Hosseini, Sayyideh Bani (1396 SH/2017). Arkān-e jarāʾem-e qābel-e goẕašt dar ḥoqūq-e keyfarī-ye Īrān [Elements of Forgivable Crimes in Iranian Criminal Law]. Nashriyeh-ye Amoozeh-hay-e Hoquq-e Keyfari [Criminal Law Doctrines Journal], Vol. 14, No. 14, pp. 39–64 [in Persian].
  23. Moazenzadegan, Hassanali (1402 SH/2023). Dādrasī-ye keyfarī-ye veīžeh-ye kūdakān va nowjavānān [Special Criminal Procedure for Children and Adolescents]. Tehran: SAMT [in Persian].
  24. Moazenzadegan, Hassanali, & Zarghamnezhad, Sirous (1391 SH/2012). Moṭālaʿeh-ye taṭbīqī-ye mowqeʿīyat-e dādestān va bī-ṭarafī-ye ū nesbat beh dalāʾel-e lah va ʿalayh-e mottaham dar ḥoqūq-e Īrān va Āmrīkā [Comparative Study of the Position of the Prosecutor and His Impartiality Regarding Evidence For and Against the Accused in Iranian and American Law]. Faslnameh-ye Pazhohesh-e Hoquq-e Umumi [Public Law Research Quarterly], Vol. 14, No. 37, pp. 147–170 [in Persian].
  25. Mohseni, Farid, & Rahimian, Reza (1398 SH/2019). Az keyfar-gozārī-ye taqnīnī tā keyfar-gozīnī-ye qażāʾī; model-hā va meʿyārhā bā taʾkīd bar ravīyeh-ye qażāʾī-ye Īrān [From Legislative Sentencing to Judicial Sentencing: Models and Criteria with Emphasis on Iranian Judicial Precedent]. Majalleh-ye Hoquqi-ye Dadgostari [Justice Legal Journal], Vol. 83, No. 107, pp. 57–78 [in Persian].
  26. Mohseni, Hasan (1398 SH/2019). Tabaʿīyat-e amr-e ḥoqūqī az raʾy-e qatʿī-ye keyfarī dar ofoq-hā-ye novīn-e ḥoqūq-e keyfarī (Nekūdāšt-nāmeh-ye Ostād Doktor Hossein Aghaeinia) [Subordination of Civil Action to Final Criminal Judgment in New Horizons of Criminal Law (Festschrift for Professor Dr. Hossein Aghaeinia)]. Tehran: Mizan [in Persian].
  27. Molaei, Ezzatollah, & Pourghahramani, Babak (1394 SH/2015). Mabānī-ye tajdīdnaẓar-ḵᵛāhī (eʿterāż) dar dādrasī-ye qażāʾī va dāvarī-ye tejārī-ye beynalmelalī [Foundations of Appeal (Challenge) in Judicial Adjudication and International Commercial Arbitration]. Faslnameh-ye Hoquq-e Melal [Nations Law Quarterly], Vol. 5, No. 20, pp. 211–240 [in Persian].
  28. Motallebi, Majid, Mirzajani, Hamidreza, Ghasemi, Ghasem, & Norouzi, Nader (1402 SH/2023). Barresī-ye rūykerd-e efterāqī-ye qānūn-gozār dar tajdīdnaẓar az ārāʾ; elzāmāt-e feqhī yā tasrīʿ-e farāyand-e keyfarī [Examining the Legislator's Differential Approach to the Appeal of Judgments: Jurisprudential Requirements or Acceleration of the Criminal Process]. Nashriyeh-ye Pazhoheshhay-e Hoquqi [Legal Research Journal], Vol. 21, No. 50, pp. 277–303 [in Persian].
  29. Niazpour, Amir Hasan (1385 SH/2006). Bāzparvarī-ye bezehkārān dar moqarrarāt-e Īrān [Rehabilitation of Offenders in Iranian Regulations]. Faslnameh-ye Feqh va Hoquq [Jurisprudence and Law Quarterly], Vol. 3, No. 11, pp. 145–164 [in Persian].
  30. Pourghahramani, Babak (1397 SH/2018). Az darajeh-bandī-ye čahārgāneh-ye jarāʾem tā darajeh-bandī-ye haštgāneh-ye keyfar-hā-ye taʿzīrī; āsībhā va ḵalāʾhā [From the Fourfold Grading of Crimes to the Eightfold Grading of Ta'zir Punishments: Damages and Lacunae]. Majalleh-ye Motale'at-e Hoquq-e Tatbiqi-ye Moaser [Contemporary Comparative Legal Studies Journal], Vol. 9, No. 16, pp. 31–55 [in Persian].
  31. Sadati, Sayyid Mohammad Mehdi, & Parhizgar, Javad (1400 SH/2021). Naqš-e dādestān dar kāheš-e tavarrom-e jamʿīyat-e keyfarī [The Role of the Prosecutor in Reducing the Inflation of the Penal Population]. Nashriyeh-ye Rahyaft-e Pishgiri [Prevention Approach Journal], Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 119–146 [in Persian].
  32. Shahsavari, Sajjad, Moazenzadegan, Hassanali, & Rayejian Asli, Mehrdad (1402 SH/2023). Mošārakat-e bezehdīdeh dar farāyand-e dādrasī; mabānī, čālešhā va rāhkārhā [Victim Participation in the Adjudication Process: Foundations, Challenges, and Solutions]. Faslnameh-ye Didgahhay-e Hoquq-e Qazayi [Judicial Law Views Quarterly], Vol. 28, No. 102, pp. 127–164 [in Persian].
  33. Sheidaian, Mehdi, & Sheidaian, Zeinab (1397 SH/2018). Rūykerd-e qānūn-e āyīn-e dādrasī-ye keyfarī 1392 beh jarāʾem-e monāfī-ye ʿeffat [Approach of the 2013 Criminal Procedure Code to Crimes Against Public Decency]. Majalleh-ye Hoquqi-ye Dadgostari [Justice Legal Journal], Vol. 82, No. 101, pp. 117–139 [in Persian].
  34. Shojaei, Ali (1393 SH/2014). Tafsīr-e qānūn-e jenāyī dar partow-ye tafsīr-šenāsī va taḥlīl-e goftmān [Interpretation of Criminal Law in Light of Hermeneutics and Discourse Analysis]. Tehran: Dadgostar [in Persian].
  35. Shojaei, Khalil, Gholami, Hossein, & Moazenzadegan, Hassanali (1402 SH/2023). Rāhbardhā-ye kāheš-e jamʿīyat-e keyfarī-ye zendān; moṭālaʿeh-ye ḥoqūq-e Āmrīkā va emkān-e kārbast-e rāhbardhā dar neẓām-e ʿadālat-e keyfarī-ye Īrān [Strategies for Reducing the Prison Penal Population: A Study of American Law and the Feasibility of Applying Strategies in the Iranian Criminal Justice System]. Faslnameh-ye Pazhoheshhay-e Hoquq-e Tatbiqi [Comparative Law Research Quarterly], Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 98–137 [in Persian].
  36. Siahpour, Mohammad Reza, Bahmanpouri, Abdollah, & Salehi, Karim (1403 SH/2024). Āṯār, natāyej va īrādāt-e darajeh-bandī-ye mojāzāt-hā-ye taʿzīrī [Effects, Outcomes, and Defects of Grading Ta'zir Punishments]. Faslnameh-ye Didgahhay-e Hoquq-e Qazayi [Judicial Law Views Quarterly], Vol. 29, No. 106, pp. 21–44 [in Persian].
  37. Soltanifard, Hossein, Malmir, Mahmoud, & Alipour, Hasan (1398 SH/2019). Dādrasī-ye efterāqī-ye jarāʾem-e monāfī-ye ʿeffat; az moqtażī-ye taʿqīb tā ṣalāḥīyat-e sāzmānī [Differential Procedure for Crimes Against Public Decency: From Expediency of Prosecution to Organizational Jurisdiction]. Nashriyeh-ye Amoozeh-hay-e Hoquq-e Keyfari [Criminal Law Doctrines Journal], Vol. 16, No. 18, pp. 147–168 [in Persian].
  38. Tahmasebi, Javad (1396 SH/2017). Āyīn-e dādrasī-ye keyfarī [Criminal Procedure] (Vol. 2). Tehran: Mizan [in Persian].
  39. Tavajjohi, Abdolali (1402 SH/2023). Nehādhā-ye erfāqī dar qānūn-e mojāzāt-e Eslāmī 1392 [Leniency Institutions in the 2013 Islamic Penal Code]. Tehran: Judiciary Press and Publication Center [in Persian].
  40. Vahedipour Dehraei, Morteza, Nazarinezhad, Mohammad Reza, Aghaei, Jan Ahmad, & Taghvaei, Abbas (1403 SH/2024). Taḥlīl-e meʿyārhā-ye tafkīk-e jarāʾem-e qābel-e goẕašt va ġeyr-e qābel-e goẕašt [Analysis of Criteria for Distinguishing Between Forgivable and Unforgivable Crimes]. Do-faslnameh-ye Pazhoheshnameh-ye Hoquq-e Keyfari [Criminal Law Research Journal], Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 191–206 [in Persian].
  41. Vakili, Mostafa, & Sheikholeslami, Abbas (1404 SH/2025). Mabānī-ye jobrān-e żarar va zīyān-e nāšī az jorm dar neẓām-e dādrasī-ye Īrān va Englestān (čālešhā va rāhkārhā) [Foundations of Compensation for Losses Arising from Crime in the Adjudication System of Iran and England (Challenges and Solutions)]. Do-faslnameh-ye Tahqiq va Tose'eh dar Hoquq-e Keyfari va Jorm-shenasi [Research and Development in Criminal Law and Criminology Biannual Journal], Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 363–413 [in Persian].
  42. Vatani, Amir, & Nargesian, Mohammad (1397 SH/2018). Jāygāh-e aṣl-e resīdegī dar moddat-e maʿqūl dar farāyand-e keyfarī [The Position of the Principle of Hearing within a Reasonable Time in the Criminal Process]. Faslnameh-ye Didgahhay-e Hoquq-e Qazayi [Judicial Law Views Quarterly], Vol. 23, No. 84, pp. 263–282 [in Persian].
  43. Yaghoubi, Taghi, & Mirkhalili, Sayyid Mahmoud (1396 SH/2017). Barresī-ye ʿavāmel-e qażāʾī-ye afzāyeš-e jamʿīyat-e keyfarī-ye zendānhā [Investigating Judicial Factors of the Increase in the Penal Population of Prisons]. Faslnameh-ye Rahbord [Strategy Quarterly], Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 99–128 [in Persian].
  44. Yazdanshenas, Samira, Janipour, Mojtaba, & Ghorbani, Mohammad Ali (1401 SH/2022). Moṭālaʿeh-ye taṭbīqī-ye moqtażī būdan-e taʿqīb dar neẓām-e ḥoqūqī-ye Īrān va dādrasī-ye keyfarī-ye beynalmelalī [Comparative Study of the Expediency of Prosecution in the Legal System of Iran and International Criminal Proceedings]. Majalleh-ye Beynalmelali-ye Pazhohesh-e Melal [International Journal of Nations Research], Vol. 7, No. 77, pp. 7–29 [in Persian].
  45. Zakavi, Mehdi, & Mostafavi, Hadi (1402 SH/2023). Jāygāh-e aṣl-e sorʿat dar sīyāsat-e jenāyī-ye Īrān [The Position of the Principle of Speed in Iranian Criminal Policy]. Faslnameh-ye Ta'ali-ye Hoquq [Excellence of Law Quarterly], Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 243–278 [in Persian].
  46. Zera'at, Abbas (1398 SH/2019). Bonyādhā-ye dādrasī-ye keyfarī [Foundations of Criminal Procedure] (Vol. 2). Tehran: Javdaneh [in Persian].

  • Received 14 December 2025
  • Accepted 10 April 2026